Richard Inegbedion

History of Judaism

Judaism is the most ancient monotheistic religion in the world, with a history of nearly 4,000 years. It is widely regarded as the authentic Abrahamic faith, comprising both Islam and Christianity. The Jewish Bible, despite its difficulties in relating its literary works to past evidence, is widely acknowledged as the most trustworthy source for the earliest Jewish history in the Bible. The book contains stories about Noah’s ark, Moses’ role in the exodus, and David and Solomon’s supreme reign over Israel.

Judaism is widely regarded as the manifestation of the covenant that God established with Abraham and his offspring through his grandson Jacob, who is also referred to as Israel, which signifies the individual who faced struggle with God. The scripture says that God promised the land to the people of Israel, who were chosen as a special group.

For that promise to come into realization, they were required to obey his command. This was recorded as a directive for Moses in the Torah, also known as the Five Books of Moses.  In addition to the principal divisions of the Hebrew Bible, such as the Neviim and Ketuvim, they comprise the three parts of the Hebrew Bible, commonly referred to as the Tanakh by Christians.

Moreover, it is widely acknowledged in the biblical literature that the Canaanites, a hostile pre-Israelite indigenous group, professed pagan beliefs and possessed numerous deities, each of which was regarded as a national deity to them. To avoid the children of Israel being entangled in their pagan rituals, God forbade them from committing any kind of marriage to the Canaanite people.

This understanding is what drove the ancient Israelites, and especially the tribe of Judah, to remain faithful to Yahweh. The incorporation of the regions into the Assyrian empire led to Israel’s rebellion against the Almighty, and the capital of the Northern Kingdom of Israel, Samaria, was finally seized by the Assyrians under the leadership of Sargon II after a three-year siege.

Ultimately, Israel was destroyed in 722 BC. Following the conquest, certain of the displaced inhabitants were compelled to depart from their homes and relocate to Judah. There, they learned about Yahwism, which means only worshipping Yahweh.

Unlike Canaanite polytheism, this was different from it. The descendants of Israel saw their situation worsen as time went on, as the Babylonian’s conquest of Judah in 587 BCE sparked the forced exile of many of them. Due to this conflict, their first temple, which was used for solemn worship of Yahweh, was destroyed. The legendary Persian king Cyrus the Great conquered Babylon in 539 B.C., less than a century after its establishment, and offered the Jews the chance to return to Judah, where they rebuilt the Second Temple and assembled a significant portion of the Hebrew Scriptures.

After Alexander the Great took control of Alexandria, Jewish religion mixed with Greek culture to create a new religion called Hellenistic Judaism.  It is therefore obvious that the process of Hellenistic acculturation occurred. The Hellenic influence was felt throughout everything, even in the strongest holds of Judaism.

It influenced the organization of the state, laws, and public affairs, art, science, and industry, affecting even the ordinary things of life and common associations. The Septuagint is the most important work from the early Hellenistic period, which started in the 3rd century BCE. It is a translation of the Hebrew Scriptures into Greek, including some parts that are not found in the traditional Hebrew Bible.

After Alexander the Great died, his kingdom was divided into four parts during the Wars of the Diadochi: Egypt, the Seleucid Empire, the Kingdom of Pergamon, and Macedon (including Greece). Egypt, ruled by Ptolemy I Soter, allowed for Judaism to flourish with very little intervention in the 3rd century BCE. But in the 2nd century BCE, the Seleucids, who had got control of Judea, went to rule Egypt and the Jews.

As tensions grew, the Jews decided to take back control of Jerusalem in what is known as the Maccabean Revolt of 167-160 BCE. The Maccabean Revolt was a Jewish revolt in Judea that protested against the oppression of the Seleucid Empire. The revolt was led by a country priest named Mattathias and his military followers, who later became known as the Maccabees. Jerusalem was captured and the Temple of Jerusalem was reopened, an act that is still remembered today at the Jewish Hanukkah festival.

The Jews’ capture of Jerusalem was short-lived, as the Roman general Pompey captured it in 63 BCE. The Romans exercised their authority through a local client king, which largely permitted the practice of free religion in Judaea. Conflicts between Jews and Gentiles were caused by the disparity between monotheistic and polytheistic religious perspectives. The capture of Jerusalem by Pompey, in general, marked the end of Jewish sovereignty for a period of two thousand years, as the city became a Roman client state.

Jewish people were dissatisfied with the influence of the Romans and decided to start a rebellion.  The revolt began in 66 CE, during the twelfth year of emperor Nero’s reign. The revolt was sparked by various issues, including the oppressive rule of Roman governors, the widening gap between the wealthy and the poor, and religious disputes between Roman and Jewish communities. The Jewish rebellion against the Romans didn’t go well because the Romans responded violently.  

In the year 70 CE, Emperor Titus and his Roman army embarked on a march towards Jerusalem and reclaimed the city, destroying the Second Temple and reducing it to a mere fragment of the western wall. This day happened three days before Passover that year, which made Jerusalem more crowded. With many other Jewish strongholds already conquered and the Passover approaching, the Roman authorities decided to exterminate the Jews from the region after they revolted. 

In the year 135 CE, following the suppression of the second insurrection in Judea’s province, the Romans renamed the province Syria Palaestina, meaning “Palestinian Syria”, due to its historical habitation by the Philistines, the renowned adversaries of the Jews who originated from Crete.

Meanwhile, Christianity, which began as a Jewish movement, became a separate religion by Paul.  Paul was a firm believer in the earliest Jewish faith, but his beliefs were different from this Jewish faith because they stressed the inclusion of the Gentiles into God’s New Covenant and rejected circumcision as an unnecessary symbol of upholding the Law. 

Furthermore, the majority of Christian Jews were opposed to the Jewish uprisings against the Romans in Jerusalem and were not willing to join the Jewish Revolt against Rome, but were nevertheless caught up in the turmoil due to their proximity and similarity to Jews. In Roman eyes, there wasn’t much to make them different from the Jews.

In the year 380 CE, Theodosius, the Roman Emperor, issued the Edict of Thessalonica, which declared Christianity, specifically Nicene Christianity, as the official religion of the Roman Empire.  Romans and non-Jewish people became Christians after this edict. This, in other words, was the way in which Christianity became the supreme faith of the entire Roman Empire. Rabbinic’s ideas were then created to replace the Jewish leadership. They combined the interests of Jews and the Romans without needing to be independent of the government.

As Jews migrated to Galilee and throughout the empire at the end of the first century BCE, a second, more significant wave of Jewish settlement emerged in Galilee, leading to a greater spread of Judaism. This led to the establishment of big towns, like Kefar Hananya, Parod, Ravid, Mashkaneh, Sabban, and Tiberias. They experienced prosperity, and a multitude of their moral teachings were incorporated into the Mishnah by numerous rabbis, thus establishing them as the foundation of the Talmud.

The Jews didn’t just stick to the region of Galilee during the Middle Ages, they also ventured out to other parts of the world. They moved to North Africa and Europe as well. They were subsequently divided into two distinct groups based on their geographical location and religious beliefs. These groups were referred to as Ashkenazi and Sephardic Jewish. Through their connections in the widespread diaspora, Jews became involved in two main areas: international commerce and money lending with interest.

Both of these were forbidden in Christianity. The rise of Islam saw the acceptance of the Jewish people, once viewed with suspicion by the Byzantine Empire, increase in the number of Muslims in the Middle East. The reason for their widespread acceptance by the ancient Arab world was due to their similar cultural backgrounds.

During the period of time between the 9th and 13th centuries, Jews enjoyed a significant presence in the region of Spain under Muslim rule, and they were thriving in all aspects of life. Muslims, Christians, and Jews coexisted peacefully, resulting in a period of Jewish history that will be regarded as the golden age.

This was a period of Muslim rule when Jews were accepted in society and Jewish religious, cultural, and economic life flourished. In the years that followed, things got worse for the Jews, as Jewish persecution spread across Europe like a tidal wave. They encountered several difficulties, the most important of which were:

• Jews were considered a deicide people who killed Jesus Christ, which led to the massacre of their communities on the way to the holy city.
• The rise of antisemitism in Europe during the Middle Ages was influenced by Christian theological views on Judaism.
• Jews were blamed for the Black Death, a disease that killed half of the European population between 1347 and 1351.

The period of the Reconquista, commonly referred to as the “reconquest,” is a significant period in the history of the Iberian Peninsula. The end of this period saw the elimination of the Emirate of Granada, the final Islamic state on the peninsula, which later brought about the expulsion of Arab Muslims from Spain by the Spanish Catholic kings. When this happened, many Jews left Spain for the Ottoman Empire, which was more welcoming.

By the 17th century, a significant proportion of the Jewish population worldwide resided within the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth, formerly known as the Kingdom of Poland. The area has become a haven for Jews from Europe’s continent. The Cossack uprisings that took place between 1648 and 1657, led by the Cossack hetman Bohdan Khmelnytsky, became the biggest rebellion in Eastern Europe. Originally, it was meant to prevent the Polish Catholic szlachta (noble estate) from ruling the Ukrainian Orthodox population.

The same Ukrainian revolt against the Catholic Polish rule was followed by heinous acts against the Jews, who were considered tenants who oppressed the rural populace. As soon as the Russian Empire took control of the area, there were many anti-Jewish riots (Pogroms). This led to the emigration of Jews to the United States and Western Europe. This occurred during the Age of Enlightenment, when Jews were accorded equal rights and were no longer confined to isolated and ghettos.

Today, the Jews are characterized by the end of a passive waiting for the Messiah as a moment of divine redemption and the beginning of an active pursuit of personal or national fulfilment. The recurrence of anti-Semitism, as exemplified by the Dreyfus affair, prompted Austro-Hungarian Jewish journalist, Theodor Herzl, to initiate the Zionist movement, contemplating the establishment of a Jewish-controlled territory in Palestine.

The First World War was marked by the demise of the Ottoman Empire, the guarantee of Jewish communities of their homeland by Britain, and the redrawing of the map of the Middle East. Then, there was World War II. During this time, 6 million Jews were killed in the Holocaust genocide. This led to the creation of Israel, which now has 40% of the 14 million Jews in the world.

Almost all Jewish religious movements agree that a person can be a Jew either by birth or through conversion. According to halakha, a Jewish person must be born to a Jewish mother. The Halakha also states that merely adhering to the tenets and customs of Judaism does not make a person a Jew. Judaism is not a religious belief, but rather a matter of ethnicity, ancestry, identity, and culture.

Despite the absence of territory, sovereignty, or armies for an entire 1800 years following the Roman exile, the Jewish nation remained resilient and did not fade into history like Ancient Egypt or Rome. This may be attributed to its adaptability and the numerous advantages it offered human civilization, including its influence over Christianity.

Judaism Beliefs

The Jewish people believe that there is a single God who has established a covenant or unique agreement with them. They believe that God communicates with believers through prophets and rewards good deeds, as well as punishing bad. Except for a few groups, the majority of Jews believe that their Messiah has not yet arrived, but that he will in due time.

The Jewish people engage in religious practices at sacred sites known as synagogues, and their spiritual leaders are referred to as rabbis. The’six-pointed star of David‘ is an emblem of Jewish belief. The star of David is a Jewish symbol composed of two overlaid equilateral triangles that form a six-pointed star. It can be observed on synagogues, Jewish tombstones, and the flag of the State of Israel.

Sacred Text of Judaism

Tanakh

The Hebrew word Tanakh refers to the Hebrew Bible, which is commonly referred to as the Old Testament by English-speaking individuals. The Jews consider it to be an ancient collection of writings. These writings were composed over a period of nearly a thousand years, spanning from 1000 to 100 BCE. 

The Tanakh is composed of the first Hebrew letter of each of the Masoretic Text’s three traditional divisions: Torah (teachings), Nevi’im (prophets), and K’tuvim (writings).

Torah

The Jewish people believe in the Torah, which they think contains all the laws that Moses gave to the Israelites at Sinai. They’re firmly committed to upholding God’s guidelines for daily living. Additionally, the term Torah is used to describe the entire Hebrew Bible. The Jewish faith has two Torahs, one written and one oral.  According to Jewish tradition, Moses was conferred with both Torahs at Sinai and during his forty-year stay in the desert, and they were subsequently transmitted to the entire nation. When Judaism says that “God gave Moses the Torah at Sinai,” they only mean the oral version.

Torah is often used to refer to the first five books of the Hebrew Bible (Old Testament), also known as the Law, or the Pentateuch, in Christianity. These are the books that have been said to be written by Moses, who got the first message from God on Mount Sinai. The canons of Jewish, Roman Catholic, Eastern Orthodox, and Protestant denominations agree on the order of the Scriptures: Genesis, Exodus, Leviticus, Numbers, and Deuteronomy.

The written Torah is preserved in all Jewish synagogues on handwritten parchment scrolls that reside inside the ark of the Law, in the restricted sense of the first five books of the Bible. They are removed and returned to their designated location with the utmost respect. Reading the Torah is an important part of Jewish liturgical services.

Talmud

Talmud, in Hebrew, means a collection of ancient teachings that Jews considered sacred and important from the time they were written until today. This is still part of traditional Jewish beliefs today. The first edition of the Talmud was composed in the third century B.C., while the second edition was composed in the fifth century B.C. In its most basic form, the Talmud comprises a collection of books that encompasses the Mishna, the Gemara, and various other materials.  It includes the interpretations of thousands of rabbis and illustrates the importance of the 613 commandments of Jewish law.

The Mishna, on the other hand, is a compilation of original oral laws that complement the Scriptural laws. The Gemara is a compilation of commentaries and elaborations of the Mishna, which is reconstructed in contrast to the Gemara in the Talmud.   

Modern scholars solely employ the term Talmud to denote the materials referred to as Gemara. This term was employed by the church censor to substitute the term Talmud in the Talmudic writings in the Basel edition of the Talmud, which was published in 1578-81. This identical procedure was adhered to in subsequent editions.

Types of Jewish Movements

Reform Judaism

Reform Judaism is viewed as a liberal religion that places emphasis on ethical traditions over the strict observance of Jewish laws.  It is estimated that 35 percent of American Jewish people identify as Reform, the largest affiliation of American Jewish people. Reform Judaism emphasizes the superiority of the Jewish ethical tradition over the obligations imposed by Jewish law.

People who practice reformed Judaism claim that Jewish customs should be updated to be more relevant to contemporary times. They believe in promoting equality and political advancement, but they’re also determined to give individuals the power to decide how they observe Jewish rituals.

Conservative Judaism

This type of Judaism is often viewed as being somewhere between Orthodox and Reform Judaism. Conservative Jews typically uphold the customs of Judaism while allowing for modernization.

The Conservative Judaism movement has been prevalent for a considerable period of time and lies somewhere in between the Orthodox and Reform beliefs. Conservative Jews adopt certain values, such as going to synagogue by car on Shabbat and praying according to gender. However, they still adhere to the old rules, such as keeping kosher and having children together.  Although Conservative Judaism still prohibits its rabbis from officiating at interfaith weddings, it has opened up its approach to intermarriage. About 18% of American Jews consider themselves conservative.   

Orthodox Judaism

Traditionally, Orthodox Jews are known for their strict adherence to traditional Jewish laws and customs. They follow a conventional understanding of Jewish law, as it has been interpreted by rabbinic authorities over the course of time. 

It is important to note that there are various Jews in this group, including Hasidic Jews. This form of Judaism originated in Eastern Europe in the 18th century and has different values from traditional or ultra-Orthodox Judaism. Hasidic Jews believe in praying and worshipping to have a personal relationship with God. The Chabad movement is a well-known, strict Jewish, Hasidic movement.

Orthodox Jews observe the strict observance of Shabbat, which stipulates that on this day, they refrain from driving, engaging in work or handling money related issues. Despite the small number of Orthodox Jews, about 10 percent of American Jews identify as Orthodox. Another thing to know about orthodox Jews is that they have bigger families, which means their children are more likely to stay Jewish.

The Jewish Holidays

Jewish holidays are special days that are celebrated in Judaism and by Jews.  They are composed of religious, cultural, and national elements, derived from three sources: biblical mitzvot, rabbinic mandates, and the history of Judaism and the State of Israel.

Jewish holidays happen every year on the same dates in the Hebrew calendar, but they change in the Gregorian calendar. This is because the Hebrew calendar is a lunisolar calendar, which is based on the cycles of the sun and moon, whereas the Gregorian calendar is a solar calendar.  Each holiday is restricted to specific days of the week. For most holidays, there are four days, but there are five days for Tevet and Shvat and six days for Hanukkah. Some important holidays in Judaism include:

Passover

The purpose of Passover is to commemorate the exodus of the Israelites from Ancient Egypt.  According to the Torah, God commanded Moses to free his fellow Hebrews from slavery under the pharaoh. When the pharaoh refuses, God punishes him with 10 plagues. The name ‘Passover’ comes from the fact that the Israelites homes were passed over during the last and most punishing plagues.

Today, the Jewish community commemorates Passover by partaking of customary Passover meals, commonly referred to as seder. These meals are a rite of passage that marks the commencement of the Jewish holiday of Passover, and are typically consumed on the first two nights of the holiday. The Seder is the customary Passover meal that encompasses the act of reading, indulging in four cups of wine, sharing stories, consuming specialized foods, engaging in singing, and other Passover customs.  

The date of Passover changes every year because it’s not based on the Gregorian calendar, but on the Hebrew calendar that uses lunar cycles. Passover begins on the 15th and ends on the 21st of the Hebrew month of Nisan (or the 22nd outside of Israel).

Rosh Hashanah

The Hebrew term ‘Rosh Hashanah‘ means ‘head of the year’ or ‘first of the year.’ Rosh Hashanah is known as the Jewish New Year among Jewish people. This day is considered to be the birthday of the universe, the day when God created Adam and Eve, and it is commemorated as the culmination of the Jewish year.  In most cases, it occurs in September or early October.

Yom Kippur

Yom Kippur is considered the most important Jewish holiday. It’s also called the Day of Atonement.  It occurs during the month of Tishrei, which is typically in the months of September or October. It is also the end of the 10 Days of Awe, a time to think and make amends after Rosh Hashanah, the Jewish new year.

The Jewish belief is that on Yom Kippur, God decides what happens to each person. People are encouraged to make up for mistakes they made last year and ask for forgiveness. People are encouraged to observe a fast for 25 hours and attend a religious ceremony on this day. According to Jewish tradition, Yom Kippur and Rosh Hashanah are widely recognized as the High Holy Days.

Hanukkah

Hanukkah (Chanukah) means “dedication” in Hebrew. This holiday is to celebrate the reopening of the Holy Temple. This eight-day Jewish festival is intended to commemorate the rededication of the Second Temple in Jerusalem during the second century B.C.  As per the historical record, this was also intended to commemorate the Jewish individuals who had risen against their Greek-Syrian oppressors during the Maccabean Revolt. According to the Hebrew calendar, the celebration of Hanukkah commences on the 25th of Kislev, which typically falls in November or December.

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